THE OCEAN DEEP

A Lionfish is any of several species of venomous marine fish in the genera Pterois, Parapterois, Brachypterois, Ebosia or Dendrochirus, of the family Scorpaenidae. The lionfish is also known as the Turkey Fish, Dragon Fish, Scorpion or Fire Fish. They are notable for their extremely long and separated spines, and have a generally striped appearance, red, green, navy green, brown, orange, yellow, black, maroon, or white.

Native environment
The lionfish is native to the tropical Indo-Pacific region of the world, but various species can be found worldwide. Due to a recent introduction, the lionfish has recently been spotted in the warmer coral regions of the Eastern Atlantic Ocean and Caribbean Sea.
Size
There are many types of lionfish that vary in size. The common lionfish generally reaches a size of 30-35cm, while smaller lionfish, like the Fuzzy Dwarf, are typically the size of a tennis ball, not including fins. Caution
NOAA encourages everyone (divers and fishers) to be extremely cautious and avoid contact with the venomous spikes of the lionfish. Although they are not deadly, they are very painful. Lionfish are not aggressive toward humans and will almost always keep their distance when given the opportunity, so they pose a relatively low risk.
Venom
The lionfish is one of the most venomous fish on the ocean floor. Lionfish have venomous dorsal spines that are used purely for defense. When threatened, the fish often faces its attacker in an upside down posture which brings its spines to bear. However, a lionfish's sting is usually not fatal to humans. If a human is envenomed, that person will experience extreme pain, and possibly headaches, vomiting, and breathing difficulties. A common treatment is soaking the afflicted area in hot water, as very few hospitals carry specific treatments. However, immediate emergency medical treatment is still advised, as some people are more susceptible to the venom than others.
Feeding
Lionfish are voracious predators. When hunting, they corner prey using their large fins and then use their quick reflexes to swallow the prey whole. In captivity, lionfish can be trained to eat frozen brine shrimp, mysis, and krill.
Predators
The lionfish have very few natural predators, but the grouper and other lionfish have been found with lionfish remains in their stomachs.

The Banggai Cardinalfish has eight dorsal spines, 14 dorsal soft rays, two anal spines, and 13 anal soft rays (Koumans 1933). This species is distinguished further by having a tasseled first dorsal fin and a deeply forked caudal fin. Both the second dorsal fin rays and anal fin rays are elongate. The colour pattern is quite distinctive with three black bars across the head and body, black edges along the anterior margins of the second dorsal and anal fins, black edges along the upper and lower margins of the caudal fin, and black pelvic fins marked with white spots. A series of similar white spots run along the edges of the second dorsal, anal and caudal fins (Allen and Steene 1995, Allen 2000). The body is silvery and contains about 20 brilliant whitish dots between the second and third black bars. Dots of each individual have a unique disposition that can be used for specimen identification (Vagelli 2002). Body size of adults reaches 80 mm total length and 55 mm standard length (SL) (Allen 2000). Secondary sexual dimorphism has not been demonstrated for this species (Vagelli and Volpedo 2004).
The genus Pterapogon contains only one other species, P. mirifica from northwestern Australia. However, ongoing studies on the reproductive biology, behaviour, anatomy and preliminary data on molecular studies on P. mirifica (A. Vagelli, pers. comm. on 27th Feb 2007) indicate that it is distantly related to the Banggai Cardinalfish and may in fact merit separate generic status. Therefore the Banggai Cardinalfish may be unique at the generic level.
Justification:
The Banggai Cardinalfish, Pterapogon kauderni, is a small reef fish endemic to the Banggai Islands off Sulawesi, Indonesia. This species is distinguished by having a relatively small population size, limited distribution (EOO about 5,500 km², AOO about 34 km² and it has two distinct geographic clades and one small subpopulation introduced accidentally to Sulawesi), plasticity and ontogenetic differences in microhabitat utilization, a social system based upon group living, territorial behavior in both males and females, paired courtship and spawning that is initiated by females, low fecundity, considerable investment in energy resources for reproduction, paternal oral incubation of eggs and free-living embryos, a lack of a pelagic larval phase, limited dispersal capability and localized settlement and recruitment.
Decline Rates
Several subpopulations affected by the aquarium fishery exhibited dramatic declines between 2001 and 2004, among them: a complete extinction of a subpopulation was documented off Limbo Island in 2004. According to a 2001 census this subpopulation was composed of about 50,000 fish (densities = 0.02 fish/m²); and a small subpopulation off Bakakan Island that harbored 6,000 fish in 2001 was reduced to 17 individuals in 2004 (Vagelli 2005).
The rate of decline for this species is difficult to calculate, since the earliest quantitative surveys (2001) were carried out several years after the harvest began within its natural geographic range. However, one subpopulation localized inside a bay in Southwest Banggai Island has been off limits to all fishing since before the beginning of the trade (the bay is privately owned by a pearl farm business). The bay has the typical habitats, microhabitats, and oceanographic characteristics in which P. kauderni is found throughout the Archipelago, and therefore this subpopulation may be used to estimate what the historical baseline abundance for this species could have been. The density of this subpopulation was 0.63 individuals/m²).
This density is significantly higher than the mean density (0.07 individuals/m²) of the eight censuses completed in 2004 in unprotected sites [S = 0.05; highest d= 0.21 (Bokan); lowest d= 0.028 (Bangkulu)]. In addition, a census was carried out about 300 m from the protected bay and the density was 0.071 ind./m² (Lunn and Moreau 2004, Vagelli 2005). If the 0.63 density value is considered as the historical normal density for this species within the Archipelago, then a reduction of approximately 89% took place since the start of the fishery (about 9 to 10 years before the 2004 censuses).
However, at one of these sites (Masoni) the density increased from 0.03 to 0.06 individuals/m² between 2001 and 2004. This increase is thought to have occurred in response to a collecting ban that the local people imposed in early 2003. In another site (Bokan) a more significant increase was found in 2004, i.e., 0.21 individuals/m². In this case too, collection in the census site (which has an area of occupancy of only about 1 km²) was banned in 2002 by the village chief because of disputes with outside collectors (Vagelli 2005).
The size class structure of populations found during the last survey (2004) within the natural range of P. kauderni, agree with those reported previously, where most fish encountered were large juveniles (6 to 9 months old), whereas newly released recruits (<15 onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_64pJM8he-eM/Sg1Ko-q5VNI/AAAAAAAAAIw/IUFXEwiR1X4/s1600-h/Pterapogon+kauderni.jpg">
Assessment:
The decline information is not sufficient to apply Criterion A and likewise Criteria C and D cannot be used because the population is too large. However, based on the very small area of occupancy (AOO), the severe fragmentation (see the documentation below) and the ongoing continuing decline (local extirpations and marked decrease in population size in recent years) due to exploitation for the international aquarium trade, this species is assessed as Endangered under Criterion B.
Pterapogon kauderni is a rare example of a marine fish with an extremely limited geographic range. It is endemic to the Banggai Archipelago, which lies in the Banggai-Sula platform in eastern Indonesia. The Banggai Island group is thought to have been a geological entity during the Cenozoic, and is located within the region of Wallacea. The natural geographic range of P. kauderni extends from 01° 24' 57.6" of latitude South (Monsamat, east Peleng) as its northern most distribution point to 02° 0' 53.5" of latitude South (Loisa A), and from 123° 34' 11" of longitude East (Patipakaman, central Peleng) as its westernmost distribution to approximately 124° 23' 30" of longitude East (Kano) and the south-east tip of Taliabu. This distribution covers an area of approximately 5,500 km². However, within this range, the maximum potential available habitat is about 426 km of coastline extending from the shore to about 100 m off the coast, with a maximum available area of about 34 km² (Vagelli 2005).
The earliest known population survey (2001) identified P. kauderni on 16 out of 37 islands searched. Average densities in suitable habitat at three sites within the Banggai Archipelago were approximately 0.03 fishes per m² (Vagelli and Erdmann 2002). Based on these census data and calculations of the total available habitat, the species was estimated to have a total population size of 1.7 million fish (Vagelli 2002). Additional surveys in 2002 and 2004 covering the entire Archipelago (50 islands, 159 sites) expanded the range to 27 (17 major and 10 minor) islands. Surveys done in 2004 found P. kauderni in most sites at densities of about 200 to 700 individuals/ha. The mean density based on census carried out in seven locations throughout its natural range in 2004 was 0.07 individuals per m², with a total population size estimated at 2.4 million individuals (Vagelli 2005).

Polypterus is a genus of freshwater fish in the bichir family (family Polypteridae) of order Polypteriformes. The type species is the Nile bichir (P. bichir). Fishes in this genus live in various areas in Africa (as the species' common names would indicate). The etymology of the genus name derives from a combination of the Greek prefix poly- (many) and the root word pteron (wing or fin) – "many fins." The bichirs are a family, Polypteridae, of archaic-looking ray-finned fishes, the sole family in the order Polypteriformes. All species occur in freshwater habitats in tropical Africa and the Nile River system, mainly swampy, shallow floodplains and estuaries.
Anatomy and appearance
Bichirs are elongated fishes with a distinctive series of up to fifteen dorsal finlets, instead of a single dorsal fin. Each of these finlets have a sharp spine. The body is covered in thick, bonelike, ganoid scales. Their jaw structure more closely resembles that of the tetrapods than that of the teleost fishes. Bichirs have a number of other primitive characteristics, including fleshy pectoral fins superficially similar to those of lobe-finned fishes. They also have spiracles.
Bichirs have rudimentary lungs, which allow them to obtain oxygen from the air when in poorly oxygenated waters, by swimming quickly to the surface and back to the bottom. They are nocturnal, and feed on small vertebrates, crustaceans, and insects.
Bichirs have a maximum body length of 97 centimetres (3.2 ft), although many species do not exceed 35 centimetres (1.1 ft).
Relationship to humans
Bichirs are popular subjects of public and large hobby aquaria. Though predatory, they are otherwise peaceful and relatively nonactive, preferring to lie on the bottom, and make good tankmates with other species that are large enough not to be prey. Some aquarists note that Loricariid catfish may attack bichirs and suck on their skin.
Species
There are twelve extant species in two genera:
Order Polypteriformes
• Family Polypteridae
o Genus Erpetoichthys
• Reedfish, Erpetoichthys calabaricus Smith, 1865.
o Genus Polypterus
Polypterus ornatipinnis
• Guinean bichir, Polypterus ansorgii Boulenger, 1910.
• Polypterus bichir
• Nile bichir, Polypterus bichir bichir Lacépède, 1803.
• Polypterus bichir katangae Poll, 1941.
• Polypterus bichir lapradei Steindachner, 1869.
• Barred bichir, Polypterus delhezi Boulenger, 1899.
• Polypterus enlicheri
• Polypterus endlicheri congicus Boulenger, 1898.
• Saddled bichir, Polypterus endlicheri endlicheri Heckel, 1847.
• Polypterus mokelembembe Schliewen & Schafer, 2006.
• Ornate bichir, Polypterus ornatipinnis Boulenger, 1902.
• Polypterus palmas
• Polypterus palmas buettikoferi Steindachner, 1891.
• Shortfin bichir, Polypterus palmas palmas Ayres, 1850.
• Polypterus palmas polli Gosse, 1988.
• West African bichir, Polypterus retropinnis Vaillant, 1899.
• Polypterus senegalus
• Polypterus senegalus meridionalis Poll, 1941.
• Gray bichir, Polypterus senegalus senegalus Cuvier, 1829.
• Polypterus teugelsi Britz, 2004.
• Mottled bichir, Polypterus weeksii Boulenger, 1898.
Extinct species include:
• Polypterus faraou Otero et al., 2006 — late Miocene.

Mobula is a genus of ray in the family Myliobatidae (eagle rays). Their appearance is similar to that of Manta rays, which are in the same family. The Devil fish can attain a disc width of up to 5.2 meters (17 feet) and probably can weigh over a ton, second only to the Manta in size. Despite their size, this genus is quite little-known. Mobula rays in the Gulf of California (Sea of Cortez) have been reported to breach as high as 2 metres above the sea,. Although manta rays (Family Myliobatidae, Subfamily Mobulinae) are fascinating and beautiful fishes, almost nothing is known about basic aspects of their ecology, population biology, movement patterns, and migrations. Available information is typically anecdotal or based on dead specimens providing little insight into the biology of living manta rays. This lack of information on natural history and behavior is critical in light of their very low fecundity (~1 pup per year) and resulting vulnerability to over-exploitation.

Mantas are the subject of an intensive artesanal fishery in the Gulf of California and they are a common component of bycatch in the tuna purse seine fishery and high–seas gill net fishery. Anecdotal reports suggest that populations in the Gulf of California have declined dramatically over the last 20 years. Unfortunately it is only in the last three years that efforts have been made to collect data on catch statistics. As a result, it is almost impossible to track long-term changes in the population. In addition, lack of understanding of the basic ecology precludes the development of a realistic management program. The goal of our project is to initiate a collaborative research program focussing on the reproduction, ecology, population structure, migration patterns, and fishing mortality of mantas in the Gulf of California. These data will provide essential informationfor the development of management and conservation plans. Unfortunately,fisheries managers are generally ignorantof (or choose to ignore) the vulnerable nature of species with low fecundity and high adult survival such as mantas.
Five of the ten species of manta ray occur in the Gulf of California (Mobula japanica, M. munkiana, M. thurstoni, M. tarapacana and Manta birostris). Few data exist for these or any other manta species. For this study our efforts will focus on M. munkiana and M. japonica. Both species appear in the Gulf of California seasonally and their occurrence seems to coincide with the large influx of warm water apparent each spring. M. japanica attains a larger maximum size (3.1 m maximum wing span), may swim alone or in small groups and is often seen and caught in surface waters. M. munkiana forms schools and is generally caught near the bottom. This is the smallest species in the Gulf of California with a maximum wingspan of 1.1m. In one of the few studies conducted on Mobula spp.in the Gulf of California, Notarbartolo di Sciara examined 262 Mobula spp. between 1981 and 1984 at various fish camps. His surveys indicated that M. japanica feed primarily on one species of krill, Nyctiphanes simplex. M. munkiana, in contrast, feeds primarily on mysid shrimp, suggesting that they prefer a neritic habitat. While this study yields a coarse picture of the biology of these rays in the Gulf, details of movements, behaviors, and habitat use cannot be resolved. In addition, Nortarbartolo di Sciara’s data contrast markedly with those we collected at a fish camp in June 2000. In one day we examined over 130 mobuline rays of which over 75% were M. munkiana (compared to 9% reported by Notarbartolo-di-Sciara, 1988). A cursory examination of stomach contents indicated that M. munkiana was feeding primarily on N. simplex. More information is required to understand the ecological niches and interrelationships of these rays.
With funding from the National Geographic Society and UC Mexus, we have developed a novel approach to tag and track mantas, and examine their foraging behavior and movement patterns within an ecological context. Working closely with local fishermen we are now able to reliably capture manta rays, deploy instruments, and sample environmental variables including primary production, water temperature structure, and prey distribution. Croll has used a similar approach to understand the foraging ecology of baleen whales.
The studies to date in the Gulf of California have determined that seasonal pulses in krill abundance occur in the spring. These pulses are an important resource for a number of large planktivores, including blue and fin whales. Dense krill swarms are generally found down current of upwelling sites in areas with steep bathymetric features. Whales feed intensively on these swarms aggregated between 150 and 250 m during the day. At night, krill disperse near the surface to graze, and whales appear to quit foraging. Our deployment of tags on foraging M. japanica indicated that, in contrast to the whales, mantas forage on krill while they are at the surface at night (Figure 1A). Interestingly, tagged mantas did not always remain in areas where krill density was high and traveled up to 30 miles in 24 hours (Figure 1B). While these studies have laid the foundation for understanding the relationship between foraging mantas and their prey, more detailed information is needed. Determination of critical locations and densities of krill where mantas feed provides a powerful tool for predicting their distribution and abundance. Such information is essential for effective fishery management.
Foraging ecology and habitat use is just one part of the information needed for effective management. To reliably ascertain the impacts of fisheries on Mobula populations in the Gulf of California, information on population structure, reproductive biology, survival, and fishing mortality is needed. Information on movements outside the Gulf must be also determined. We have received funding from the UC-MEXUS program for a collaborative study with Dr. Felipe Galvan (Centro Interdisciplinario de Ciencias Marinas, La Paz, Baja California Sur, Mexico) and Dr. Oscar Sosa (Centro de Investigación Científica y de Educación Superior de Ensenada, Baja California, México) to survey fish camps that target mantas to acquire this information. Together, this information will lay the foundation for the development of a fishery management plan for Mobula mantas.

Manta birostris was first described by Dondorff in 1798. Synonyms include Cephalopterus vampyrus Mitchill 1824, Cephalopterus manta Bancroft 1829, Manta americana Bancroft 1829, Ceratoptera johnii Müller & Henle 1841, Ceratoptera alfredi Krefft 1868, Brachioptilon hamiltoni Hamilton & Newman 1849, Raja manatia Bloch & Schneider 1801, Manta hamiltoni Hamilton & Newman 1849, and Manta alfredi Krefft 1868.
Common Names
Manta ray, Atlantic manta, Australian devilray, blanketfish, devil ray, devilfish, devil-ray, eagle ray, giant devil ray, giant manta, giant Atlantic manta, great devilfish, manta, manta ray, Pacific manta, prince alfreds ray, sea devil, and skeete are common names in English language. Other names include diable de mer (French), duivelsrog (Dutch), jamanta (Portuguese), manta (Italian), manta atlantica (Spanish), oni-itomaki-ei (Japanese), raya (Spanish), teufelsrochen (German), and urjamanta (Portuguese).
Geographical Distribution
The manta inhabits temperate, tropical, and subtropical waters worldwide, between 35 N and 35 S latitudes. In the western Atlantic Ocean, this includes South Carolina (US) south to Brazil and Bermuda. Occasionally this ray is observed as far north as New Jersey and San Diego. Other locations include the east coast of Africa, in the Gulf of Aden, Red Sea, Arabian Sea, the Bay of Bengal, as well as the Indo-Pacific.
Habitat
Habitat of M. birostris ranges from near shore to pelagic, occurring over the continental shelf near reef habitats and offshore islands. It swims by flapping its large pectoral fins, and is usually observed near the surface or in the mid-waters of reefs and lagoons. It sometimes migrates into temperate waters.
M. birostris sometimes swim in loose aggregations and spends considerable time near the surface. Mantas have been observed breaching, jumping clear of the water and returning with a splash. Three types of jumps have been observed, forward jumps landing head first, forward jumps landing tail first, and somersaulting. Groups of these animals have been seen participating in this behavior, breaching one after the other. While it is not understood why this behavior is exhibited, some speculate it may play a role in attracting mates or is a form of play.
• Distinctive Features
Adults are easily recognized by their large triangular pectoral fins and projecting cephalic fins, forward extensions of the pectoral fins that project anteriorly on either side of the head. Each cephalic fin is about twice as long as its base is wide. The length of each cephalic lobe, from tip to the mouth, is 14% of the disc width. They are rolled like spirals when swimming and flattened when eating. This ray has smooth skin, a broad, rectangular terminal mouth located at the front of the head, and a tail that lacks a spine.
Unlike other mobulids, the mouth of the manta is in the terminal location, not inferior. The spiracles and the eyes are located laterally, while the gills are located ventrally. The disc is 2.2 times wider than it is long, not including the cephalic lobes. The tail from cloaca to tip is as long as the cloaca to the front of head. The tail is slightly flattened and is shorter than disc width. The head is slightly concave between the cephalic lobes, thereby forming a shallow triangular cavity anteriorly. The head region also forms a crest from nape to should but is otherwise flat. M. birostris has a dorsal fin that is located just anterior of the pectoral axis. The height of the dorsal fin is 83% of its base length. The base of the dorsal fins is 34% as long as the mouth is wide.
• Coloration
Individual mantas possess distinct dorsal and ventral coloration that is unique to each animal. Generally, it is dark brown, grayish blue, or black on top with pale edges and white underneath. Some individual mantas have pale patches and color patterns on top as well as dark blotches underneath. These color variations have been used to identify individuals.
• Dentition
M. birostris possess teeth only on the lower jaw. There are 18 rows of teeth on the center of the lower jaw, with row number decreasing to 12-14 toward the corners of the mouth.
•Denticles
Conical and ridge-like tubercles are present and sporadically placed over the disc, pelvic, and tail regions on both the dorsal and ventral surfaces of the disc. Tubercles of the ventral surface are radially striated.
•Size, Age, and Growth
This ray can achieve a maximum disc width of 29.5 feet (9 m), with an average width of about 22 feet (6.7m). The largest specimens of the manta weigh up to 3,000 pounds (1350 kg). Estimated life span for these giants is approximately 20 years.
• Food Habits
All mobulids are primarily filter feeders that occasionally consume small fish. The filtering mechanism consists of plates of pinkish-brown sponge-like tissue located between the successive gill bars that support the gills. When feeding, the cephalic lobs unfurl, directing plankton-rich water towards the mouth. Many have opportunistic remoras attached to their undersides, consuming scraps that result from feeding. Mantas have been observed swimming in slow vertical loops within rich feeding areas. They aggregate in areas that offer large concentrations of zooplankton, with up to 50 individuals within an area. Oceanic islands and submarine ridges provide precious few sites containing nutrient-rich waters and an abundance of zooplankton, in the otherwise nutrient poor tropical regions.
• Reproduction
Males reach maturity at a disc width of at least 13 feet (4 meters) while females mature at a disc width of 16.5 feet (5 meters). During copulation male rays bite the pectoral fins of the females before aligning themselves, abdomen to abdomen, inserting one clasper into the female’s cloaca. Manta rays reproduce by ovoviviparity with the birth of one pup during a breeding season. Embryos have been shown to reach 50 inches in disc width and weigh 20 lbs. or more. Parturition occurs in relatively shallow water where the young remain for a few years prior to expanding their range offshore.
Importance to Humans
M. birostris has been harvested in tropical America. The manta ray was formerly harvested commercially off Australia and California waters for its liver oil and for its skin which is used as an abrasive. Today it is rarely hunted, although meat from the manta ray is considered a delicacy in the Philippines. Dive tourism has benefited greatly from the manta in locations where they are reliably encountered and sometimes approach divers. In these areas, where divers often touch and interact with mantas, the rays can develop skin lesions in response to the removal of the protective mucous layer.
Danger to Humans
Mantas are of minimal danger to humans.
Conservation
M. birostris is categorized as "Near Threatened" with the World Conservation Union (IUCN). The IUCN is a global union of states, governmental agencies, and non-governmental organizations in a partnership that assesses the conservation status of species.

Taxonomy
The spotted eagle ray was originally described in 1790 as Raja narinari (Euphrasen 1790). The name was changed to Stoasodon narinari and later to the currently valid name Aetobatus narinari (Euphrasen, 1790). The genus name Aetobatus is derived from the Greek aetos meaning "eagle" and batis meaning "ray". Synonyms referring to this species in past scientific literature include Raia quinqueaculeata Quoy and Gaimard 1824, Myliobatis eeltenkee Rüppell, 1837, Myliobatis macroptera McClelland 1841, and Aetobatis latirostris Duméril, 1861. A. narinari, sometimes considered a species complex rather than a single species, is currently under review.
Common Names
English language common names include spotted eagle ray, bishop ray, bonnet skate, duckbill ray, eagle ray, lady ray, leopard ray, mottled eagle ray, skate, spotted bonnetray, spotted duckbill ray, spotted stingray, spotted eagleray, spotted whipray, sunfish, whip, whip ray, and white-spotted eagle ray. Other common names include aigle de mer (French), arendskoprog (Dutch), arraia-morcego (Portuguese), arraia-pintada (Portuguese), bagtau (Bikol), banagun (Bikol), banagon (Bikol), bolad (Marathi), bulik (Cebuano), chili (oriya), chucho (Spanish), chucho pintado (Spanish), chuchu agila (Papiamento), curooway-tiriki (Tamil), dalimanok (Tagalog), eel-tenkee (Telugu), faaiy (Carolinian), fai manu (Tahitian), fai sikota (Tongan), fai-manu (Samoan), gavilan pintado (Spanish), gefleckter adlerrochen (German), gevlekte adelaarsrog (Dutch), gharabi (Arabic), Imil (Marshallese), jimojo (Marshallese), kakkathirandi (Malayam), kipungu (Swahili), kurivi thirukai (Tamil), lamburu jangang (Makassarese), leik-kyauh-sun (Burmese), leopardrocka (Swedish), madara-tobi-ei (Japanese), madi (Mahl), maylan (Somali), narinari (Portuguese), nek yorany (Kumak), obispo (Spanish), orlen centkowany (Polish), pagi (Tagalog), paging paul (Tagalog), papagaio (Portuguese), pari burung (Malay), pari lang (Malay), pe manuk ((Javanese), pintada (Portuguese), pungo piju ((Swahili), raia-chita (Portuguese), raia-leopardo (Portuguese), raie chauve-souris (French), raie noire (French), ramak-e-khaldar (Farsi), ratau ponteado (Portuguese), raya (Spanish), raya aguila (Spanish), rayo pico de pato (Spanish), spikkel-arendrog (Afrikaans), taachui (Swahili), tagabobon (Banton), taligmanok (Bikol), tiss (Arabic), tubaq (Arabic), vai tonotono (Fijian), vali lovo (Gela), vaval (Malayalam), wakawa (Spanish), and walbuulbul (Spanish).
Geographical Distribution
The spotted eagle ray is distributed worldwide in tropical and warm temperate waters. In the western Atlantic Ocean, it is found in waters off North Carolina and Florida (U.S.), Gulf of Mexico, Caribbean and Bermuda south to Brazil. This ray can be found from Mauritania to Angola in the eastern Atlantic Ocean. In the Indo-West Pacific, it occurs in the Red Sea and from South Africa to Hawaii, including north to Japan and south to Australia. The spotted eagle ray also resides in the waters of the eastern Pacific Ocean from the Gulf of California south to Puerto Pizarro, Peru, including the Galapagos Islands (Ecuador).
The spotted eagle ray is commonly observed in bays and over coral reefs as well as the occasional foray into estuarine habitats. Although it occurs in inshore waters to depths of approximately 200 feet (60 m), the spotted eagle ray spends most of its time swimming in schools in open water. In open waters, spotted eagle rays often form large schools and swim close to the surface. It is known to swim long distances across open waters as evidenced by its presence in Bermuda. This species is capable of leaping completely out of the water when pursued. It swims by "flying" gracefully through the water via the undulation of the pectoral fins. When this ray is caught and taken out of the water, it produces loud sounds. Although much research is still needed on the life history of the spotted eagle ray, it is known that this species shows high site fidelity (individuals often stay in or return to the same location). This ray also interacts socially with other individuals within its own species.
• Distinctive Features
The spotted eagle ray has a very angular disc and a long, broad snout with a v-shaped internasal flap. The ventrally located mouth is well- adapted for feeding on benthic prey. The flattened body disc is broad and short, measuring about twice as wide as long. Large spiracles originate close to the pectoral fin origins. The fleshy subrostral lobe is duckbill-shaped and distinct from the upper snout. The wing-like pectoral fins are broad with pointed tips. The trailing edge of the pectoral fins is deeply concave with angular tips. The pelvic fins are narrowly rounded and the dorsal fin is small with its origin just posterior to the pelvic fin insertion point. There is no caudal fin on the spotted eagle ray. The tail is very long and whip-like, reaching lengths of 2.5-3x the width of the disc when undamaged. The stinging spines, originating just behind the dorsal fin, are short and number from 2-6. They have a barbed tip and recurved lateral teeth along with a forked root. These venomous spines can deliver a nasty sting when used in defense against potential threats. Similar species sharing distribution ranges with the spotted eagle ray include the southern eagle ray (Myliobatis goodei) and the bullnose ray (M. freminvillii). The southern eagle ray has a dorsal fin originating well behind the level of the rear edges of the pelvic fins while this fin originates just behind the pelvic fin insertion point in the spotted eagle ray. In contrast, the bullnose ray has a dorsal fin origin close to the level of the rear margins of the pelvic fins. Also the bullnose ray is absent from the Gulf of Mexico and the majority of the Caribbean Sea. The coloration of both of the southern eagle ray and the bullnose ray ranges from a uniform gray to reddish-brown with diffuse white spots on the dorsal surface. Another species that closely resembles the spotted eagle ray is the longheaded eagle ray (Aetobatus flagellum). However the uniform coloration of the dorsal side of the longheaded eagle easily distinguishes it from spotted eagle ray which has a spot pattern on the topside of its body.
• Coloration
As one of the most beautiful rays, the spotted eagle ray has a dramatic spotted pattern across the dorsal side of the body. The small white, bluish-white, greenish, pearly, or yellow spots are distinct against the black, dark gray, or brown body color. A variation on this pattern includes larger white rings each with a black center, and these rings sometimes join to form lines and circles. The ventral surface is white in color, making it easy to see them underwater as they flap their pectoral fins during swimming. The disc and fin outer margins as well as the tail are darkly shaded or black. The tail has a white base and in freshly caught specimens, there may be crossbars on the tail. The upper sides of the pelvic fins are a similar color to the background color of the body along with dark posterior edges and 6-10 spots. The dorsal fin is either uniformly dark or has a blotch on the front edge.
• Denticles
The smooth skin surface of the spotted eagle ray lacks denticles and thorns. The tail spines are not smooth, but instead have lateral teeth and a barbed tip.
• Dentition
There is a single row of broad, flat teeth in each jaw that combine to form a single plate. The upper tooth plate takes up about 80% of the width of the mouth while the lower plate takes up approximately 60%. Three to six of the anterior teeth of the lower jaw project beyond the upper tooth plate when the mouth is closed. These plate-like teeth are used to crush shellfish including clams, oysters, and whelks. The roof of the mouth contains a row of 6 or 7 short papillae close to the upper dental plate while the floor has about 6 papillae. The papillae remove shells from prey items prior to ingestion.
•Size, Age, and Growth
The spotted eagle ray reaches a maximum length of 8.2 feet (2.5 m) not including the tail, with the total length including an unbroken tail reaching close to 16.4 feet (5 m). The maximum disc width is 9.8 feet (3 m) and maximum published weight is 507 pounds (230 kg).
• Food Habits
Clams, oysters, shrimp, octopus, squid and sea urchins as well as bony fishes provide prey for the spotted eagle ray. This ray is well adapted with its shovel-shaped snout and duck-like bill for searching in the mud for benthic invertebrates. When a prey item is found, the ray crushes it with its plate-like teeth and uses the papillae located in the mouth to separate the shells from the flesh. Upon scientific observation, the stomach contents of spotted eagle rays contained intact prey items lacking any remnants of shells.
• Reproduction
Mating behavior often includes the pursuit of a female by one or more males. These males grab her dorsum with their upper tooth plate. One male then grasps the edge of the female's pectoral fin and rolls to her ventral side. The male then inserts a clasper into the female ray. The actual mating lasts 30-90 seconds while the pair are positioned venter-to-venter. Females have been observed to mate in this manner with up to four males over a short time period. Spotted eagle rays are ovoviviparous meaning the eggs develop inside the body and hatch within the mother. After being released from the egg, the embryos are nourished by a yolk sac rather than through a placental connection with the mother. Up to 4 pups are born in each litter, each measuring 6.7-13.8 inches (17-35 cm) disc width.
• Predators
Sharks, including the silvertip shark (Carcharhinus albimarginatus) and great hammerhead (Sphyrna mokarran), are predators of the spotted eagle ray. Sharks have also been reported to follow spotted eagle rays during the birthing season, feeding on newborn pups.
• Parasites
Trematodes, including Thaumatocotyle pseudodasybatis, commonly infect the skin of the spotted eagle ray. Clemacotyle australis was reported in the branchial cavity of an individual caught in Australian waters and Decacotyle octona n. comb was found on the gills on another individual. Acanthobothrium monski n. sp. and A. nicoyaense n. sp., both tapeworms, also parasitize the spotted eagle ray. In addition, a marine leech, Branchellion torpedinis, has been recorded on the pelvic fins of a specimen from Venezuelan waters.
Importance to Humans. The spotted eagle ray is considered of minor commercial fisheries importance. Presently, fishing grounds are primarily found within inshore surface waters throughout this species range. Methods of capture include trawls, trammelnets, and longlines. It is also fished as a gamefish and provides a good fight when captured on a line. This ray is rarely eaten due to the poor quality of the flesh. Instead, it is used for fishmeal and oil. The spotted eagle ray is a popular display aquarium specimen and is often seen in public aquaria facilities.
Danger to Humans
Generally a shy species, spotted eagle rays are wary of divers and are difficult to approach. However, it is considered potentially dangerous to humans due to the venomous tail spines that can inflict serious wounds.
Conservation Status
The spotted eagle ray is considered as "Near Threatened" by the World Conservation Union (IUCN). The IUCN is a global union of states, governmental agencies, and non-governmental organizations in a partnership that assesses the conservation status of species.

Marlin, Istiophoridae, is a member of a group of marine fish known as "billfish", and is closely linked to the freshwater trout. A marlin has an elongated body, a spear-like snout, and a long rigid dorsal fin, which extends forwards to form a crest. Its common name is thought to derive from its notional resemblance to a sailor's marlinspike. Even more so than their close relatives the scombrids, marlin are known to be incredibly fast swimmers, reaching speeds of about 110 kilometres per hour (68 mph).
The larger species include the Atlantic blue marlin, Makaira nigricans, which have been reliably recorded in excess of 2 metres (6.6 ft) in length and 120 kilograms (260 lb) in weight, and the Black marlin, Makaira indica, which have been reliably recorded in excess of 5 metres (16 ft) in length and 670 kilograms (1,500 lb) in weight. They are popular sporting fish in certain tropical areas.
Marlin are rarely table fare, appearing mostly in fine dining restaurants. Most modern sport fishermen release marlin after unhooking. However, the old fisherman in Ernest Hemingway's novella The Old Man and the Sea was storied to have caught an 18-foot marlin in order to sell its meat at market.
Some large marlin, which may be able to set a record, are taken and weighed on shore. These records are most often recorded in the IGFA World Record Game Fish books.

Tuna are several species of ocean-dwelling carnivorous fish in the family Scombridae, mostly in the genus Thunnus. Tunas are very fast swimmers—they have been clocked at 70 km/h (45 mph)—and include several species that are warm-blooded. Unlike most fish species, which have white flesh, tuna have flesh that is pink to dark red. The red coloring comes from tuna muscle tissue's greater quantities of myoglobin, an oxygen-binding molecule. Some of the larger tuna species, such as the bluefin tuna, can raise their blood temperature above that of the water through muscular activity. This ability enables them to live in cooler waters and to survive in a wide range of ocean environments.

While the fishing of many stocks of tuna is sustainable, it is widely accepted that bluefin tuna have been severely overfished, with some stocks at risk of collapse. The Eastern Pacific Ocean bigeye is also in need of better management in order to maintain sustainability and, in fact, the world's major tuna canneries involved with the International Seafood Sustainability Foundation (ISSF) have agreed to not source from that stock if meaningful conservation measures are not put in place by September 1, 2009.
Commercial fishing
Tuna is an important commercial fish. Some varieties of tuna, such as the bluefin and bigeye tuna, Thunnus obesus, are threatened by overfishing, which dramatically affects tuna populations in the Atlantic and northwestern Pacific Oceans. Other areas seem to support fairly healthy populations of some of the over 48 different species of tuna —for example, the central and western Pacific skipjack tuna, Katsuwonus pelamis—but there is mounting evidence that overexploitation threatens tuna populations worldwide. The Australian government alleged in 2006 that Japan had illegally overfished southern bluefin by taking 12,000 to 20,000 tonnes per year instead of the their agreed 6,000 tonnes; the value of such overfishing would be as much as USD $2 billion. Such overfishing has resulted in severe damage to stocks. According to the WWF, "Japan's huge appetite for tuna will take the most sought-after stocks to the brink of commercial extinction unless fisheries agree on more rigid quotas".
Increasing quantities of high-grade tuna are entering the market from operations that rear tuna in net pens and feed them a variety of bait fish. In Australia the southern bluefin tuna, Thunnus maccoyii, is one of two species of bluefin tunas that are kept in tuna farms by former fishermen.[4] Its close relative, the northern bluefin tuna, Thunnus thynnus, is being used to develop tuna farming industries in the Mediterranean, North America and Japan.
According to the Foodmarket Exchange, the total tuna catch was 3,605,000 tons in 2000, down about 5.7 percent from 3,823,000 tons in 1999. The main tuna fishing nations are concentrated in Asia, with Japan and Taiwan floating the main fleets. Other important tuna fishing nations in Asia are Indonesia and South Korea. Spain and France are also important tuna fishing countries, with their ships fishing primarily in the Indian Ocean. In southeast Asia, the southern Philippines is an important tuna-producing area, particularly General Santos City and Davao.
Japan remains the main tuna fishing nation fishing in the Pacific. In 2000, total tuna caught by Japanese vessels was 633,000 tons, about 17 percent of the world tuna catch. Taiwan was the second biggest tuna producer at 435,000 tons, or about 12 percent of the world's total catch. Spain supplies most of the yellowfin to European canneries, accounting for 5.9 percent of the total tuna catch, while Ecuador and Mexico dominate the Eastern Pacific Ocean.
Nutrition and health
Canned tuna is a prominent component in many weight trainers' diets, as it is very high in protein and is easily prepared. Tuna is an oily fish, and therefore contains a high amount of Vitamin D. A can of tuna in oil contains about the Adequate Intake (AI) of the US Dietary Reference Intake of vitamin D for infants, children, men, and women aged 19–50 - 200 UI. Canned tuna can also be a good source of omega-3 fatty acids, of which it sometimes contains over 300 mg per serving.
Mercury levels
Due to their high position in the food chain and the subsequent accumulation of heavy metals from their diet, mercury levels can be high in larger species such as bluefin and albacore.
In 2009 a California appeals court upheld a ruling that canned tuna does not need warning labels as the methylmercury found in tuna is naturally occurring.
In March 2004 the United States FDA issued guidelines recommending that pregnant women, nursing mothers, and children limit their intake of tuna and other types of predatory fish.However, in January 2009 the FDA released a draft report that found a greater risk to children whose mothers do not eat fish during pregnancy, concluding, "Benefits tend to increase as both fish consumption and exposure to methylmercury increase. The benefits are the size of a fraction of an IQ point through the 95th percentile of exposure to methylmercury (involving the consumption of 44.2 grams of fish per day), but then increases to the size of about 1.5 IQ points at the 99th percentile of exposure (involving the consumption of about 98 grams of fish per day), and to about the size of three IQ points at the 99.9th percentile of exposure (involving 205.7 grams of fish per day). The Chicago Tribune, cited for its inaccurate reporting on tuna related topics, reported that some canned light tuna such as yellowfin tuna is significantly higher in mercury than skipjack tuna, and caused Consumers Union and other activist groups to advise pregnant women to refrain from consuming canned tuna. This was considered extreme and thus not adopted by leading scientific and governing bodies.
The Eastern little tuna (Euthynnus affinis) has been available for decades as a low-mercury, less expensive canned tuna. However, of the five major species of canned tuna imported by the United States it is the least commercially attractive, primarily due to its dark color and more pronounced 'fishy' flavor. Its use has traditionally been restricted exclusively to institutional (non-retail) commerce.
A January 2008 report conducted by the New York Times has found potentially dangerous levels of mercury in certain varieties of sushi tuna, reporting levels "so high that the Food and Drug Administration could take legal action to remove the fish from the market.

Cuttlefish are much more closely related to garden slugs and snails than they are to fish! They belong to the same group of animals as the octopuses, squid and nautilus and like a snail they are all molluscs. Cuttlefish are unique within this group in that they have a gas filled bone within their bodies which allows them to be buoyant... you may have seen cuttlebones before, sticking out from the bars on a budgie's cage? The bone is within the body part of the animal called the mantle and attached to the mantle is a head with eight arms and two feeding tentacles. he cuttlefish is an ambush predator and a master of disguise. Its skin is covered with special cells called chromatophores, iridophores and leucophores that reflect light in many different colours enabling the cuttlefish to blend into its background almost perfectly. Some say it's like a chameleon but it is far superior in its ability to change colour and even the texture of its skin! A cuttlefish will steadily, using its camouflage, sneak up on its prey. Their preferred diet is crabs or fish, and when it is close enough it opens apart its eight arms and out shoots two deceptively long feeding tentacle. On the end of each is a pad covered in suckers that grasp hold of the prey and quickly pull it close to the cuttlefish's mouth that looks like a parrot's beak. The scientific name for a cuttlefish is Sepia. In years gone by sepia ink, which is derived from cuttlefish, was used by artists for their paintings. For the cuttlefish this ink is a decoy, a means of escape from predators. If a large fish were to attack a cuttlefish it would eject a cloud of dark brown, almost black ink towards its attacker! The predator would get a mouthful of ink that tastes nasty and coats its nostrils. Meanwhile the cuttlefish is hidden from view and propels itself away backwards by using its own jet propulsion system, its siphon.
The eggs of cuttlefish are laid in clumps together and are often coated in ink from the mother; this serves as camouflage for the eggs. They hatch at a much further developed stage than an octopus does and immediately start feeding on suitably small shrimps. Many people would like to keep cuttlefish as pets. This is quite easy in the UK and Europe as species of cuttlefish like Sepia officinalis the 'European cuttlefish' are found there.
In the USA however, there are no naturally found species and the most commonly imported species is from Bali called Sepia bandensis which is a poor traveller and normally arrives as a four-inch adult with perhaps only weeks to live. It is not recommended as a pet. One day someone will be captive breeding Sepia officinalis for the American hobby!
Cuttlebone
Cuttlefish possess an internal structure called the cuttlebone, which is porous and composed of aragonite, to provide the cuttlefish with buoyancy. Buoyancy can be regulated by changing the gas-to-liquid ratio in the chambered cuttlebone via the ventral siphuncle. Each species has a distinct shape, size, and pattern of ridges or texture on the cuttlebone. The cuttlebone is unique to cuttlefish, one of the features contrasting them with their squid relatives. Cuttlebones are traditionally used by jewelers and silversmiths as moulds for casting small objects. They are probably better known today as the tough material given to parakeets and other caged birds and snails as a source of dietary calcium
Changing color
Cuttlefish are photochromic, and are sometimes referred to as the chameleon of the sea because of their remarkable ability to rapidly alter their skin color at will. Their skin flashes a fast-changing pattern as communication to other cuttlefish and to camouflage them from predators. This color-changing function is produced by groups of red, yellow, brown, and black pigmented chromatophores above a layer of reflective iridophores and leucophores, with up to 200 of these specialized pigment cells per square millimeter. The pigmented chromatophores have a sac of pigment and a large membrane that is folded when retracted. There are 6-20 small muscle cells on the sides which can contract to squash the elastic sac into a disc against the skin. Yellow chromatophores (xanthophores) are closest to the surface of the skin, red and orange are below (erythrophores), and brown or black are just above the iridophore layer (melanophores). The iridophores reflect blue and green light. Iridophores are plates of chitin or protein, which can reflect the environment around a cuttlefish. They are responsible for the metallic blues, greens, golds, and silvers often seen on cuttlefish. All of these cells can be used in combinations. For example, orange is produced by red and yellow chromatophores, while purple can be created by a red chromatophore and an iridophore. The cuttlefish can also use an iridophore and a yellow chromatophore to produce a brighter green. As well as being able to influence the color of the light that reflects off their skin, cuttlefish can also affect the light's polarization, which can be used to signal to other marine animals, many of which can also sense polarization.
Eyes
Cuttlefish eyes are among the most developed in the animal kingdom. The organogenesis of cephalopod eyes differs fundamentally from that of vertebrates like humans. Superficial similarities between cephalopod and vertebrate eyes are thought to be examples of convergent evolution. The cuttlefish pupil is a smoothly-curving W shape. Although they cannot see color, they can perceive the polarization of light, which enhances their perception of contrast. They have two spots of concentrated sensor cells on their retina (known as fovea), one to look more forward, and one to look more backwards. The lenses, instead of being reshaped as they are in humans, are pulled around by reshaping the entire eye in order to change focus.
Scientists have speculated that cuttlefish's eyes are fully developed before birth and start observing their surroundings while still in the egg. One team of French researchers has additionally suggested that cuttlefish prefer to hunt the prey they saw before hatching.
Blood
The blood of a cuttlefish is an unusual shade of green-blue because it uses the copper-containing protein hemocyanin to carry oxygen instead of the red iron-containing protein hemoglobin that is found in mammals. The blood is pumped by three separate hearts, two of which are used for pumping blood to the cuttlefish's pair of gills (one heart for each gill), and the third for pumping blood around the rest of the body. A cuttlefish's heart must pump a higher blood flow than most other animals because hemocyanin is substantially less capable of carrying oxygen than hemoglobin.
Ink
Cuttlefish have ink, like squid and octopuses. This ink was formerly an important dye, called sepia. Today artificial dyes have replaced natural sepia. However, there is a modern resurgence of Jewish people using the ink for the techelet dye on their Tallit strings.

The gobies form the family Gobiidae, which is one of the largest families of fish, with more than 2,000 species in more than 200 genera. Most are relatively small, typically less than 10 cm (4 in) in length. Gobies include some of the smallest vertebrates in the world, like species of the genera Trimmaton and Pandaka, which are under 1 cm (3/8 in) long when fully grown. There are some large gobies, such as some species of the genera Gobioides or Periophthalmodon, that can reach over 30 cm (1 ft) in length, but that is exceptional. Although few are important as food for humans, they are of great significance as prey species for commercially important fish like cod, haddock, sea bass, and flatfish. Several gobies are also of interest as aquarium fish, such as the bumblebee gobies of the genus Brachygobius.
The most distinctive aspect of goby morphology are the fused pelvic fins that form a disc-shaped sucker. This sucker is functionally analogous to the dorsal fin sucker possessed by the remoras or the pelvic fin sucker of the lumpsuckers, but is anatomically distinct: these similarities are the product of convergent evolution. Gobies can often be seen using the sucker to adhere to rocks and corals, and in aquariums they will happily stick to glass walls of the tank as well.
Triplefin goby on a wire coral from East Timor
Gobies are primarily fish of shallow marine habitats including tide pools, coral reefs, and seagrass meadows; they are also very numerous in brackish water and estuarine habitats including the lower reaches of rivers, mangrove swamps, and salt marshes. A small number of gobies (unknown exactly, but in the low hundreds) are also fully adapted to freshwater environments. These include the Asian river gobies (Rhinogobius spp.), the Australian desert goby (Chlamydogobius eremius), and the European freshwater goby Padogobius bonelli. Most gobies feed on small invertebrates, although some of the larger species eat other fish, and a few eat planktonic algae.
Reproduction
Gobies attach their eggs to a substrate, such as vegetation, coral, or a rock surface. They can lay anything from five to a few hundred eggs, depending on species. After fertilising the eggs, the male remains to guard them predators and keep them free from detritus. The eggs hatch after a few days. The larvae are born transparent, developing their colouration after dispersing to find a suitable habitat. The larvae of many freshwater species are carried downstream to the brackish waters of estuaries, or even to the sea, and only return to fresh water weeks or months later.
Gobies in warmer waters reach adulthood in a matter of months, while those in cooler environments may take up to two years. The total lifespan of gobies varies from a single year to up to ten years, again with the temperate species generally living longer. A few species of goby are known to be able to change sex from female to male, although most do not do this. In such species, most individuals are born female, and the male must expend considerable effort in guarding the eggs of the multiple females with which he breeds.
Symbiosis
Gobies sometimes form symbiotic relationships with other species. Some goby species live in symbiosis with burrowing shrimps. The shrimp maintains a burrow in the sand in which both the shrimp and the goby fish live. The shrimp has poor eyesight compared to the goby, but if it sees or feels the goby suddenly swim into the burrow, it will follow. The goby and shrimp keep in contact with each other, the shrimp using its antennae, and the goby flicking the shrimp with its tail when alarmed. These gobies are thus sometimes known as watchmen or prawn gobies. Each party gains from this relationship: the shrimp gets a warning of approaching danger, and the goby gets a safe home and a place to lay its eggs in. Only the alpha male and female reproduce, other fish in colony eat sparingly to resist being eaten by alpha male or female. This way only the largest and fittest are able to reproduce.
Another example of symbiosis is demonstrated by the neon gobies (Elacatinus spp.). These gobies are known as "cleaner gobies", and remove parasites from the skin, fins, mouth, and gills of a wide variety of large fish. The most remarkable aspect of this symbiosis is that many of the fish that visit the gobies' cleaning station would otherwise treat such small fish as food (for example, groupers and snappers). Again, this is a relationship where both parties gain: the gobies get a continual supply of food as bigger fish visit their cleaning stations, and the bigger fish leave the cleaning stations healthier than they were when they arrived.

Coelacanth, adaptation of Modern Latin Cœlacanthus: cœl-us + acanth-us from Greek κοῖλ-ος [hollow] + ἄκανθ-α [spine]) is the common name for an order of fish that includes the oldest living lineage of gnathostomata known to date. The coelacanths, which are related to lungfishes and tetrapods, were believed to have been extinct since the end of the Cretaceous period, until the first Latimeria specimen was found off the east coast of South Africa, off the Chalumna River in 1938. They are, therefore, a Lazarus taxon. Since 1938, Latimeria chalumnae have been found in the Comoros, Kenya, Tanzania, Mozambique, Madagascar, and in iSimangaliso Wetland Park, Kwazulu-Natal in South Africa. The second extant species, L. menadoensis, was described from Sulawesi, Indonesia in 1999. The coelacanth has no real commercial value, apart from being coveted by museums and private collectors. As a food fish the coelacanth is almost worthless as its tissues exude oils even when dead, imparting the tough flesh with a foul flavour.
An amazing discovery
A few days before Christmas in 1938, a Coelacanth was caught at the mouth of the Chalumna River on the east coast of South Africa. The fish was caught in a shark gill net by Captain Goosen and his crew, who had no idea of the significance of their find. They thought the fish was bizarre enough to alert the local museum in the small South African town of East London.
The Director of the East London Museum at the time was Miss Marjorie Courtney-Latimer. She alerted the prominent south African ichthyologist Dr J.L.B. Smith to this amazing discovery. The Coelacanth was eventually named (scientific name: Latimeria chalumnae) in honour of Miss Courtney-Latimer.
This Coelacanth specimen led to the discovery of the first documented population, off the Comoros Islands, between Africa and Madagascar. For sixty years this was presumed to be the only Coelacanth population in existence.
Zanzibar Coelacanth
On 14th July 2007, a Coelacanth was caught by fishermen off Nungwi, Northern Zanzibar. Researchers from the Institute of Marine Sciences, Zanzibar (IMS) led by Dr Narriman Jiddawi were contacted and arrived on site to identify the fish as Latimeria chalumnae.
In 2003 the IMS joined efforts with the African Coelacanth Project (ACEP) programme to search for Coelacanths. On 6th September 2003 the first coelacanth was caught in the southern part of Tanzania at Songo Mnara making Tanzania the 6th country to record the presence of the L. chalumnae. Since then, 35 coelacanths have been recorded in Tanzania ranging from Tanga in the north, south to Mtwara. The Nungwi specimen is the 36th coelacanth to be caught in Tanzania and the first for Zanzibar.
Narriman Jiddawi is acknowledged for providing this information and the image.
Sulawesi Coelacanth
On July 30 1998, a Coelacanth was caught in a deep-water shark net by local fishers off the volcanic island of Manado Tua in northern Sulawesi, Indonesia. This is about 10 000 km east of the Western Indian Ocean Coelacanth population. The fisher brought the fish to the house of American biologist Mark Erdmann who along with his wife Arnaz had seen a specimen in the outdoor markets the previous September. The local people were familiar with the Coelacanth and called it raja laut or 'king of the sea'.
When the Coelacanth from Sulawesi was first documented, the only obvious difference between it and the Coelacanth from the Comoros Islands was the colour. The Comoros Coelacanth is renowned for its steel blue colour, whereas fish from the Sulawesi population were reported to be brown. In 1999 the Sulawesi Coelacanth was described as a new species, Latimeria menadoensis by Pouyaud, Wirjoatmodjo, Rachmatika, Tjakrawidjaja, Hadiaty and Hadie.
The discovery of a new species of Coelacanth in Sulawesi, opens up the possibility that Coelacanths may be more widespread and abundant than was previously assumed.
Living fossil
The Coelacanth specimen caught in 1938 is still considered to be the zoological find of the century. This 'living fossil' comes from a lineage of fishes that was thought to have been extinct since the time of the dinosaurs.
Coelacanths are known from the fossil record dating back over 360 million years, with a peak in abundance about 240 million years ago. Before 1938 they were believed to have become extinct approximately 80 million years ago, when they disappeared from the fossil record.
How could Coelacanths disappear for over 80 million years and then turn up alive and well in the twentieth century? The answer seems to be that the Coelacanths from the fossil record lived in environments favouring fossilisation. Modern Coelacanths, both in the Comoros and Sulawesi were found in environments that do not favour fossil formation. They inhabit caves and overhangs in near vertical marine reefs, at about 200 m depth, off newly formed volcanic islands.
The discovery by science of the Coelacanth in 1938 caused so much excitement because at that time Coelacanths were thought to be the ancestors of the tetrapods (land-living animals, including humans). It is now believed that Lungfishes are the closest living relative of tetrapods. The Coelacanth may still provide answers to some very interesting evolutionary questions.
Coelacanth characteristics
Coelacanths are quite different from all other living fishes. They have an extra lobe on the tail (see bottom image), paired lobed fins, and a vertebral column that is not fully developed. Coelacanths are the only living animals to have a fully functional intercranial joint, which is a division separating the ear and brain from the nasal organs and eye. The intercranial joint allows the front part of the head to be lifted when the fish is feeding. One of the most interesting features of the Coelacanth, is that it has paired fins which move in a similar fashion to our arms and legs.
The Australian Museum Coelacanth
The Australian Museum collection contains one Coelacanth specimen (AMS IB.7555). It was captured off the Comoros Islands, and purchased by the Trustees of the Australian Museum in 1965. The fish was transported to the Western Australian Museum by the US RV Atlantis, where it starred briefly in the Perth media. It was then sent by air to the Australian Museum. Once on display it became affectionately known as the 'wishing fish'. Visitors dropped coins through a small crack in the holding case of the tank and made a wish. Unfortunately after a time the coins discoloured the liquid in the tank, and the practice was stopped. The Coelacanth has been on display in several different exhibitions.